Although Victor Turner’s writings have proved fruitful for fields beyond anthropology, his definition of ritual is overly restrictive. Ritual, he says, is “prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technological routine, having reference to beliefs in mystical beings or powers,” “ Technological routine” refers to the means by which a social group provides for its material needs. Turner’s differentiating ritual from technology helps us recognize that festivals and celebrations may have little purpose other than play,
but it obscures the practical aims, such as making crops grow or healing patients, of other rituals. Further,
Turner’s definition implies a necessary relationship between ritual and mystical beliefs. However, not all rituals are religious; some religions have no reference to mystical beings; and individuals may be required only to participate in, not necessarily believe in, a ritual. Turner's assumption that ritual behavior follows belief thus limits the usefulness of his definition in studying ritual across cultures.

1. According to the passage, which of the following does Turner exclude from his conception of ritual?

A. Behavior based on beliefs
B. Behavior based on formal rules
C. Celebrations whose purpose is play
D. Routines directed toward practical ends
E. Festivals honoring supernatural beings


2. The passage suggests that an assumption underlying Turner’s definition of ritual is that

A. anthropological concepts apply to other fields
B. festivals and ceremonies are related cultural phenomena
C. there is a relationship between play and practical ends
D. rituals refer only to belief in mystical beings or powers
E. mystical beings and powers have certain common attributes across cultures

3. It can be inferred that the author of the passage believes each of the following concerning rituals
EXCEPT:

A. Some are unrelated to religious belief.
B. Some are intended to have practical consequences.
C. Some have no purpose other than play.
D. They sometimes involve reference to mystical beings.
E. They are predominantly focused on agricultural ends

4. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?

A. Factual data are presented and a hypothesis is proposed.
B. A distinction is introduced then shown not to be a true distinction.
C. A statement is quoted, and two assumptions on which it is based are clarified.
D. A definition is challenged, and two reasons for the challenge are given.
E. An opinion is offered and then placed within a historical framework.