John Finnis developed his theory of natural law based on the structure that Thomas Aquinas provided, filling in areas where he felt that Aquinas’s theory was lacking; he also amended other aspects of the theory to respond to a world much more culturally diverse than the one in which Aquinas lived. Unlike Aquinas, who gives only a vague account of the first precepts of the natural law, Finnis locates a specific number of basic human goods. Finnis avoids the charge that his theory falls into the “naturalistic fallacy” by asserting that these goods are not moral in themselves but become moral through human participation in them. In addition, these goods are not hierarchical, which allows a much greater range of freedom in choosing actions. Finally, Finnis’s theory does not require the presence of God. Though curiosity about the nature of the universe is one of his basic human goods, the actual existence of God is not required by his theory.

Finnis’s theory raises as many questions as it answers. While formulating an interesting answer to the “is/ought” problem and giving a much more robust definition of human volition than Aquinas, his solutions create their own problems. His account of the goods is stripped of any method for evaluation. The boundaries of each good are difficult to discern. Further, by asserting that each good is self-evident and equal to all the others, Finnis makes any action taken in furtherance of any of them equivalent morally. Finally, by removing the precepts of natural law from our natural habits and inclinations, placing them instead in self-evident goods, Finnis seems not to be describing our nature at all.

Based on the passage, what is the most likely meaning of “good” according to Finnis? ​

A A physical object, such as foodstuffs or textiles
​B​ A morally correct action as determined by God ​
C​ An action that helps us achieve a desirable, material end ​
D​ Something self-evident that we ought to strive to embrace ​
E​ Something that is naturally occurring



Based on the passage, the existence of which of the following would most likely undermine Finnis’s definition of “goods”? ​

A​ Proof of the existence of God ​
B​ Goods that demand opposing actions ​
C​ The demands of our natural desires
​D​ The definition of additional goods
​E​ A method for evaluating goods





According to the passage, which of the following is NOT an improvement of Finnis’s theory of natural law over Aquinas’s? ​

a​ Avoiding the “naturalistic fallacy” ​
b​ Removing the necessity of God in his definition of “good” ​
c​ Curtailing freedom in human actions