There is an anthropological theory that states that societies may be divided into one of two broad categories by their cultural motivators: shame or guilt. In a shame-based society, the ethical motivations are primarily external; one’s behavior is governed based on potential effects on the social group (such as dishonoring one’s family). By contrast, guilt-based societies rely more heavily on internal motivations; one’s behavior is governed based on a set of internal guidelines. There is no society where one or the other is entirely absent, but the distinction lies in that, based on the accepted values of the society, one will come to be dominant over the other. It would seem that early Medieval Europe was primarily a shame-based society; indeed, the forms of shame-based motivators in courtly society were extremely highly developed, with express social laws governing various behaviors. This sort of shame may be seen to be divided into many forms, such as positive and negative shame; that is, prospective and retrospective (knowledge of the honor one will accrue or the shame one will avoid through future actions, and humiliation or other punishment after something harmful has been done, respectively), ethical and nonethical (dealing with higher, such as theological and abstract, concepts, and quotidian matters, respectively), and so on. These social structures may also be found in the contemporary tales of the chivalric world. An example of such may be seen in the frequent plot device of the knight committing adultery with the wife of his lord. Adultery with the wife of one’s lord is a matter of treason and an explicit moral wrong, and yet the condemnation in these stories seems to focus on the perpetrator’s violation of social norms (treason) rather than moral standards (adultery).

Which of the following CANNOT be inferred from the passage? ​

A. Early Medieval Europe was unconcerned with moral codes.
B.​ Some cultures are neither shame-based nor guilt-based.
C. Guilt-based societies have few laws.



Select the sentence that describes the scope of the passage.







What can we infer about a society that focuses primarily upon a moral code of right and wrong? ​

A.​ It would be guilt-based. ​
B.​ It would tolerate adultery. ​
C. It would not have laws governing behavior.



Based on the passage, a society that prizes the harmony of the social group would most likely be ​

A​ guilt-based ​
B​ shame-based
C​ extremely permissive ​
D​ governed by a chivalric order ​
E​ bereft of citizens with an internal code of moral right and wrong