Occupations foster gender differences among workers in a variety of ways, one of the most pervasive being "internal stratification." That is, men and women in the same occupation often perform different tasks and functions. Even in those occupations that appear sexually integrated, the aggregate statistics often mask extreme internal segregation. Although the proportion of female bakers increased from 25 percent in 1970 to 41 percent in 1980, for example, the majority of female bakers are found in highly automated baking industries, while their male counterparts are located in less automated bakeries. The same phenomenon has been detected among pharmacists, financial managers, and bus drivers—all groups where the influx of women workers suggests a diminution of sex segregation. Another strategy used to maintain gender differences in supposedly integrated occupations is the use of sumptuary and etiquette rules. When women enter male-dominated occupations, certain rules are often introduced to govern their dress and demeanor. In office settings, for instance, dress codes—either formal or implicit—are not unusual; female employees may be required to wear dresses, nylons, and high-heeled shoes to enhance their femininity. So it is for female marines and male nurses, both of whom are required to dress differently from their male and female counterparts. Male nurses never wear the traditional nursing cap; female marines never sport the standard Marine Corps garrison cap.

Informal practices also play a role in constituting femininity in female marines and masculinity in male nurses. As members of visible minority groups, they stand out at work and receive far more than their fair share of attention. This phenomenon was first documented by Rosabeth Moss Kanter, who found that women in corporations, simply by virtue of their numerical rarity, were noticed and scrutinized more than their male counterparts. This added pressure may actually result in different job performances from men and women in nontraditional occupations and exacerbate gender differences. Kanter's corporate women, for example, became more secretive, less independent, and less oppositional in response to their greater visibility—all traits that have traditionally been associated with femininity. Another informal technique that enhances gender differences is practiced by supervisors who evaluate men and women differently. The very qualities that are highly praised in one sex are sometimes denigrated in the other. Thus, a man is "ambitious," a woman, "pushy"; a woman is "sensitive," a man, "wimpy."

But it would be a mistake to claim that all gender differences are forced on people. In addition to the external pressures I have just described, male nurses and female marines actively construct their own gender by redefining their activities in terms of (so) traditional masculine and feminine traits. For example, women in the Marine Corps insist that their femininity is intact even as they march cadence in camouflage units. Likewise, male nurses contend that their masculinity is not at all threatened while they care for and nurture their patients.

1. The author is primarily concerned with

A. explaining how femininity and masculinity can be reconstructed for specific careers
B. examining jobs that, at first glance, seem to be nontraditional for men and women
C. proving that discrimination based on gender is pervasive in all workplaces
D. exploring the reasons why gender differences cannot be ignored in any occupation
E. discussing practices that serve to perpetuate gender differences in the workplace



2. Select the sentence that best strengthens the author's claim that informal workplace codes regarding aesthetics can preserve gender disparities.





3. The author suggests which of the following about internal stratification?

A. Although women now work in industries once dominated by men, they find it difficult, if not impossible, to be promoted to managerial positions.
B. As women enter the work force in greater numbers, men feel their jobs are threatened and their hostility results in increased tension on the job.
C. Because men and women rarely engage in the same activities on the job, certain specialties can be feminine-identified and others masculine-identified.
D. Since men and women are segregated in the workplace, men tend not to value the work carried out by women.
E. Even when men and women are given the same tasks to perform, women continue to receive less pay than do their male counterparts.



4. The primary purpose of the last paragraph is to

A. emphasize the importance of outside forces in establishing gender differences
B. point out that men and women act to enforce gender differences themselves
C. provide an example of men and women who defy the typical perceptions of masculinity and femininity
D. demonstrate that, even in a nontraditional context, conventional definitions of "masculine" and "feminine" are preserved
E. . describe the tension that men and women feel when their sexuality is questioned



5. Consider each of the choices separately and select all that apply.

Which of the following statements about men in the labor force cannot logically be inferred from the passage?

A. In many previously male-dominated industries, men have been displaced by a new generation of female employees.
B. Men are more adept than women at performing tasks that require a high degree of manual effort.
C. In certain industries, men have been forced to disregard convention, thereby encouraging gender disparities.



6. The author specifically mentions all of the following as methods to maintain gender differences in the workplace EXCEPT

A. a manager's use of particular words for men and particular words for women although describing the same quality
B. the designation of dress codes so that the physical differences between men and women are highlighted
C. the internal pressure men and women feel to be traditionally masculine or feminine
D. pressure from coworkers to behave in a conventionally masculine or a feminine way
E. the assignation of different duties for men and women in the same occupation



7. Select the sentence which theorizes that unofficial habits regarding gender in the workplace can influence employee behavior.